While its origins are rooted in Chinese immigrant communities in the United States, over time, Chinese food in America has evolved to cater to American tastes and ingredients, making it distinctively different from traditional Chinese cuisine. By that definition, many would consider this cuisine to be more American than Chinese, but let’s take a deeper look at just how this fascinating cuisine took shape.
The earliest wave of Chinese immigrants to the United States arrived during the California Gold Rush in the 1850s. Many immigrants initially came to California hoping to strike it rich in the gold mines. However, as the opportunities in gold mining dwindled, they turned to other industries such as agriculture, fishing, and construction.
Many Chinese immigrants were recruited to work on The First Transcontinental Railroad, which connected the East and West coasts of America. This left a profound and lasting legacy on the United States, with far-reaching effects that continue to shape the nation’s development and identity. Unfortunately, they faced harsh working conditions and racial discrimination, among other challenges, but made significant contributions to the completion of this monumental project. Rightfully so, the role of Chinese laborers in building the railroad are now recognized and acknowledged as a significant and essential part of American history.
As Chinese immigrants settled in various cities and towns across the United States, they formed close-knit communities known as Chinatowns. These neighborhoods served as hubs for Chinese culture, language, and traditions, providing immigrants with a sense of familiarity and belonging.
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Chinese restaurants began to emerge in Chinatowns and other urban areas. These restaurants initially catered mostly to Chinese immigrants, serving traditional Chinese dishes that reminded them of their homeland. As Chinese restaurants sought to attract a broader clientele, they started adapting their menus to suit American tastes. Chefs modified traditional recipes to accommodate the availability of local ingredients and the preferences of non-Chinese customers.
One of the earliest examples of this adaptation was the creation of “chop suey.” The dish typically consists of stir-fried vegetables and meat (such as chicken or pork) in a savory sauce. Although the exact origins are debated, it’s widely accepted that this dish was tailored to appeal to American diners. It became a significant hit, influencing the evolution of American-Chinese cuisine.
One prevailing theory traces the origin of chop suey to the Taishan region in Guangdong Province, China. Taishan was a major source of Chinese immigrants to the United States during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Story has it that the dish was created by Chinese-American cooks in California, inspired by the cooking techniques and flavors of Taishanese cuisine.
Another theory links the creation of chop suey to Chinese laborers working on the First Transcontinental Railroad in the 1860s. According to this account, laborers would gather leftover vegetables, meat, and rice at the end of the day and stir-fry them together to make a quick and flavorful meal. This dish was referred to as “tsap seui” in Taishanese, which translates to “miscellaneous leftovers.”
A third theory suggests that chop suey was introduced by Chinese diplomats to the United States, who requested a dish featuring a variety of ingredients to suit their tastes. The name “chop suey” itself is believed to be a Westernized pronunciation of the Taishanese term “tsap seui.”
Regardless of its exact origin, chop suey gained popularity in Chinese-American communities and quickly became a sensation among non-Chinese customers in the United States.
Chinese food gained popularity beyond Chinatowns, in part, due to the participation of Chinese restaurants in international exhibitions at world fairs. Chinese food booths at these events introduced a broader American audience to Chinese flavors and culinary techniques, further fueling the demand for Chinese cuisine.
One of the most well-known world fairs featuring Chinese restaurants was the 1904 Louisiana Purchase Exposition (aka St. Louis World’s Fair) in the United States. The Chinese Village and its restaurants were one of the most popular attractions at the fair. Chinese culture, including its food and customs, was relatively unfamiliar to many Americans at the time, and the fair provided a unique opportunity to explore these new sensations. The exposure to Chinese cuisine at the fair had a significant impact on American culinary tastes. Dishes such as chop suey were introduced and popularized at the 1904 World’s Fair, and would become the foundation for American-Chinese cuisine.
In the latter half of the 20th century, American-Chinese cuisine continued to evolve and adapt to changing tastes and culinary trends. After World War II, Chinese immigration to the United States increased, with a new wave of immigrants arriving from different regions of China. This brought more diverse regional Chinese cuisines, adding richness to American-Chinese food offerings.
Iconic dishes like sweet and sour pork, General Tso’s chicken, and egg rolls became synonymous with American-Chinese restaurants.
General Tso’s chicken was indeed created in America by the late Chinese chef, Peng Chang-kuei, who drew on the flavors of his native Hunan cuisine to develop a dish that would resonate with both Chinese and American diners. This dish exemplifies the adaptability and creativity of cross-cultural culinary fusion and remains a beloved and influential part of American-Chinese food history.
Fortune cookies, often served as a treat with American-Chinese take-out meals, are not a traditional Chinese invention. They most likely were first created in California in the early 20th century, inspired by Japanese senbei crackers. In fact, the Japanese Tea Garden at San Fransisco’s Golden Gate Park claims to be the first U.S. restaurant to serve the treat. After the Japanese bombing of Pearl Harbor, and the subsequent signing of Executive Order 9066 by President Eisenhower, many Japanese American business were forced to close. Although fortune cookies were served in both Japanese and Chinese restaurants prior to WWII, this order effectively severed the cookie’s ties to Japanese-American institutions – in addition to far more grave consequences including the forced relocation, loss of property, and stigmatization and prejudice of Japanese American citizens.
An economic boom, suburbanization, and mass production technologies post-World War II are just a few of the factors behind the rise of fast food; another phenomenon that cemented American-Chinese food’s place in American cuisine and culture. Panda Express, easily the most well-known American-Chinese fast food franchise, first opened its doors in 1983. The founders, the Cherng family, previously ran a high-quality sit down restaurant called Panda Inn in Pasadena, California. Behind the idea of offering quick service Chinese food to a broader audience with a focus on consistency, convenience, and affordability, Panda Express was born.
Panda Express quickly gained popularity, and one of its original dishes, orange chicken, became a customer favorite practically overnight. This dish was, you guessed it… created in America – more specifically Hawaii – by the franchise’s head chef, Andy Kao. An adaptation of traditional Chinese sweet and sour dishes, akin to general tso’s chicken, orange chicken is basically fried chicken nuggets tossed in an orange glaze. Today, Panda Express operates more than 2,300 across the United States and dishes out approximately 100 million pounds of orange chicken annually.
Restaurants such as P.F. Chang’s further popularized American-Chinese food in the 1990’s and elevated its image beyond fast food take-out. P.F. Chang’s elevated the image of American-Chinese cuisine by presenting it in a stylish and upscale setting. The restaurant’s sophisticated decor, attentive service, and focus on wok cooking helped shift the perception of American-Chinese food from fast food or takeout to a more refined dining experience.
The cultural appropriation of Chinese food in America is a complex and multifaceted issue. Chinese-American cuisine is often simplified and stereotyped. This can perpetuate cultural stereotypes and misrepresent the complexity and richness of Chinese culinary traditions. Issues of cultural appropriation often raise questions about who gets to profit from a culture’s culinary heritage and who gets to tell its stories. It can be problematic when non-Chinese individuals or corporations claim ownership or commercialize Chinese food without proper acknowledgment or involvement from Chinese communities.
There’s a fine line between appropriation and appreciation, and the distinction often lies in how the practice is executed, whether it respects and honors the culture’s origins and traditions or trivializes and commodifies them. While cultural appropriation can be problematic when it involves exploitation or disrespect, it’s essential to distinguish it from cultural exchange and appreciation. The appreciation of Chinese cuisine by non-Chinese communities can be a form of cultural exchange and celebration, fostering cross-cultural understanding and connection, and that’s exactly what a dish like orange chicken represents, as long as it’s labeled appropriately.
Fortune cookies are an example of a cultural item that has been adopted and adapted by American-Chinese cuisine, and its association with Chinese culture is more closely tied to its popularity in the United States. Whether it is considered cultural appropriation or cultural appreciation depends on the context in which they are used and the understanding and acknowledgment of their origins and significance. The practice of adding messages inside cookies was more commonly associated with Japanese cookies before they became associated with Chinese-American cuisine. Fortune cookies, not being an authentic Chinese tradition, may contribute to a perception of Chinese culture that is based on Westernized or commercialized ideas. It is essential to recognize and respect the cultural origins of these items and avoid perpetuating stereotypes or misrepresentations.
Although at times towing the line between appropriation and appreciation, American-Chinese food has developed its own authenticity and cultural significance. It exemplifies the dynamic nature of cultural exchange, adaptation, and innovation that contributes to the richness of American food culture. While American-Chinese food may differ from traditional Chinese cuisine, it remains an important and beloved part of the American culinary experience. So, let’s continue to appreciate Chinese culture and heritage and celebrate American-Chinese cuisine respectfully.